DISCOVERY:
• Till 19th century, the Indus Valley
Civilization was unknown and it was
believed that Vedic people were the oldest inhabitants of India.
• In 1850, during the construction work of railways, some artifacts were found which were very old. It was an exciting discovery and an excavation was planned. But later, due to WW-I the excavation as planned had to be postponed.
• In 1921, Harappa was excavated under the leadership of Sir John Marshal and D. R. Sahni. Harappa is situated on the bank of River Ravi in Punjab (Pakistan).
• In 1922, Mohenjodaro was excavated in Larkana district of Sindh (Pakistan) under the supervision of R. D. Bannerjee.
• Since similar town planning and artifacts were found, it was concluded that they belonged to the same civilization despite being 480 miles apart.
• Since Harappa was excavated first, the civilization was named after it due to historical precedence.
Important findings:
Great Bath: A great Bath i.e. a large bath tub was found in the city. It measures 11.88 meters x 7.01 meters and has a maximum depth of 2.43 meters.
It is made up of burnt bricks of standard size. It is believed that it might have been used for some
ritual or holy bath.
Great Granary:
A large granary is found, showing surplus food production. It also shows that there was a proper civic administration, storage facilities, and trade and commerce.
Dancing Girl: A bronze statue of dancing girl was found. Apart from wearing necklace and bangles, it is naked. It shows that dance was practiced. It also shows the artistic and metallurgical capability of the civilization To cast that bronze image, lost wax technique was used Lost Wax Technique - Lost-wax process, also called cire-perdue, method of metal casting in which a molten metal is poured into a mold that has been created by means of a wax model. Once the mold is made, the wax model is melted and drained away.
Largest Number of Seals:
• Seals were made of steatite (hard clay) and were probably used as currency (although barter system prevailed) or as mark of authority for trade.
• Round, Square or Cylindrical shape
• The Harappan script, gods and animals are also depicted on seals giving detailed information about their practices, beliefs and life in general.
Script: It is a pictographic script. It was written from right to left in one line and then left to right in other and so on. This type of script is called
Boustrophedon’. It has not been deciphered so far but around 400 unique symbols have been identified.
Assembly Hall: A large assembly hall was found at the citadel.
Pashupati Seal: A seal depicting a human image, or Proto Shiva (Pashupati) was found. The image is surrounded by Tiger, Elephant, Rhino and a Buffalo. It has two deer at his feet.
Cotton: Evidence of Cotton fabric was found in fossilized form.
Large Building: A large building (probably a palace or the Governor’s house) has been excavated at the citadel. However, it is not clear whether the Harappan people were governed by a king or a committee of citizens.
Harappa
Located on River Ravi
Important Findings:
• 12 granaries, kept in two rows. (6 in each row)
• To the South of the Granaries lay working floors consisting of rows of circular brick platforms. These were meant for thrashing grains as wheat and Barley was found in the crevices of the floor. Two roomed barracks were also found which probably accommodated the laborers.
• Different types of Burial Practices were
performed:
Direct Burial i.e. body was directly buried in the ground
Urn Burial i.e. Body was first cremated and then the ashes were buried in the urn Coffin Burial.
• Second largest numbers of seals were found from Harappa after Mohenjodaro.
◆ Kalibangan
● River Ghaggar (Rajasthan)
●Pre-Harappan and Harappan culture
●Evidence of ploughed land is found.
Wooden ploughs were used; hence the
ploughs have not survived.
• Evidence of Fire Altars
• Citadel is made of mud bricks. In all other sides, the citadel has been made of Burnt bricks.
• Bones of camel
• Rectangular and circular graves
• No drainage and brunt bricks evidence found here.
◆ Lothal
● River Bhogwa (Gujarat)
Important Findings:
• Dockyard (made of burnt bricks) was
used for shipping (artificial dock)
• Persian seals have been found showing the evidence of Trade.
• Evidence of Rice Husk (This is the only place other than Rangapur in IVC where evidence of rice is found)
• Entry to houses on the main street
• Evidence of double burial i.e. in one
grave- MF (most common), MM, and FF. The reason why this was done is unknown.
• Evidence of fire Altars
◆ Chanhu Daro
●River Indus (Sindh)
Important Findings:
• It is believed that it was the industrial
town of the IVC.
• Factories of bangles and beads have
been found.
• The only city in the Indus Valley civilization which does not have a citadel was Chanhu Daro, located some 130 kilometers south of Mohenjo-Daro.
◆Dholavira
Important Findings:
• Kutch District, Gujarat.
• Its location is on the Tropic of Cancer
• It is located on Khadir Bet Island in the Kutch Desert Wildlife Sanctuary in the Great Rann of Kutch.
• The citadel of Dholavira is built of stone and is a monumental work and most impressive among the Harappan citadels discovered so far.
• A unique water harnessing system and its storm water drainage system.
• One of the most important findings of
Dholavira has been a signboard with Indus Script.
• It has a similar bath like Mohenjodaro, but smaller in size.
Rakhigarhi, Ropar, Kot diji, Alamgir Pur, Sokhtagindor etc are other important sites.
• Rakhigarhi in Hissar, Haryana has been recently declared as the largest site of Indus Valley.
• In the Indus Valley Civilization, a bearded man in steatite image has been found Mohenjodaro.
• Dholavira is the only site to be divided into three parts.
• In the Indus Valley Civilization, theremains of Horse bones have been found from Surkotada site. The site at Surkotada is located 160 km north-east of Bhuj, in the district of Kutch, Gujarat.
• The Indus valley people knew the use of copper, bronze, silver, gold but not iron.
• The Harappa site is located in Montogomery district of Punjab in Pakistan.
North – Jammu, South – Narmada estuary,
North-East – Meerut, West - Makrana coast of Baluchistan. (see the above image)
• Area – 12,99,600 kms.
• The Harappa civilization was 20 times
greater than Egypt and 12 times larger than combining area of Egypt and Mesopotamia.
Sites
• About 1500 Harappan sites were discovered out of which around 925 are in India.
• These sites belong to early, mature and late.
phases of Harappan culture but most of them are late Harappa, post-urban sites. These lie on the banks of the GhaggarHakra channel.
• Very few sites can be regarded as cities.
• Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were two most important cities of Harappan civilization.
Mohenjo-Daro Both cities were linked by Indus River.
3rd city – Chanhudaro in Sindh.
4th – Lothal in Gujarat at the head of the Gulf of Cambay.
5th – Kalibangan which means black
bangles, in northern Rajasthan.
6th – Banawali (Hissar, Haryana)
The last two cities have seen Pre-Harappan and Harappan culture.
• The Harappan culture in –
Mature phase is found in coastal cities of Sutkagendor and Surkotada
Later phase is found in Rangpur and Rojdi in Kathiwar peninsula in Gujrat.
• Dholvira in Gujarat shows Harappa
fortification + all 3 phases of Harappan
culture.
• Rakhigarhi in Haryana also shows all the 3 phases. But Rakhigarhi is bigger than Dholavira
• Below the city there is a lower town
consisting of bricks. These may be inhabited by common people.
• The pattern in which houses were laid was grid or chessboard pattern. In this system the road or streets cut each other at right angles i.e. 90°. The city was divided into many blocks. Almost all the Indus settlements have this pattern.
• Mohenjo-Daro has more building structures compared to the Harappa.
• Mohenjo-Daro was able to mobilize labor and collect taxes.
• 2 room barracks found at Harappa were possibly for laborers inhabitation
Great Bath
• Most important place of MohenjoDaro.
• It was a tank situated at citadel.
• Example of beautiful brickwork.
• The granaries at Harappa had same area as Great granary at Mohenjo-Daro.
 |
| Harappa--- Granary |
• To the south of the Granaries, working floors were there which were used to thrash the grains.
• How do we know this? – Remains of wheat and barley had been found in cervices of these floors.
Kalibangan Granaries
• In southern part of the city we found some brick platforms which could have been used for storing grains indicating that granaries were an important part of Harappan cities.
• Probably, peasants paid their taxes in
form of cereals which was stored in granaries for payment of wages and emergency purposes. (In Mesopotamia
barley was used for wage payments).
Burnt Bricks usage
• Burnt bricks were used remarkably in
construction of buildings in Harappa. While
Egypt used dried bricks for same purpose.
• Baked bricks were also used by Mesopotamia.
• Drainage system
• Drainage system was impressive as almost all cities and towns were having drainage system.
• In every city each small or big house had its own courtyard and bathroom with remarkable quality.
• Kalibangan – many houses had their own wells.
• Water from houses flowed to the streets which had drains.
• These drains were covered with stones slabs or bricks. (you can see in above image)
• These street drains were also having
manholes used for cleaning purposes.
• Remains of street and drains had also been found at Banawali.
• The drainage system of Harappa is very unique.
• Harappan’s attention to health and clean probably had no match by other Bronze Age civilization.
• AGRICULTURE
• It seems that in ancient times Indus
region was very fertile.
• Evidences of it are prosperity of the
villages and towns and information by
Alexander’s historian’s about prosperity of Sindh.
• Present day Indus region has hardly 15 centimeters rainfall. While in ancient times abundant vegetation attracted more rainfall but clearing of forests for agriculture, fuel, timber, grazing had largely affected rainfall.
• The secret of fertility of Indus region was annual inundation by Indus River. Walls rose for protection shows that flood takes place annually.
• The Indus carried more alluvial soil than Nile River.
• Nile River in Egypt supported its people. Similarly, Indus helped and fed Sindh people.
• After receding of flood water in month of November the Indus people sowed the seeds and in month of April i.e. before coming of next flood, they harvested wheat and Barley.
• Agriculture Tools
• No trace of any hoe or ploughshare but ploughed field found in Kalibangan shows that fields were ploughed.
• Probably they would have wooden
ploughshare which degraded with time.
• How these ploughshares were drawn i.e. by men or oxen is unknown.
• Maybe they have used stone sickles to
harvest the crops.
Food Grain production
• Harappan villages situated near flood plains produced sufficient food grains for themselves as well as for other communities like artisans, merchants and others who lived in the city and don’t produce their foods. (Just like today’s farmers).
• In other words, there was surplus of food grains.
• They produced wheat and barley (2 types), rai, peas, sesamum and mustard.
• In Lothal – rice was produced in 1800 B.C.
• Food grains were stored in granaries.
• Cotton’s earliest producers were Harappans.
Greeks called it as Sindon (derived from Sindh) because cotton was first produced by it.
DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS
• Animals which were domesticated - Oxen, buffaloes, goats, ships and pigs
• Animal favored by Harappans – Humped Bull.
• Pets – Dogs. Cats were also domesticated and signs of the feet of both are found.
• Animals for beasts of burden – Camel and ass.
• Horse evidences –Surkotada (Horse remains in 2000 B.C.)
• But Harappan culture was no horsecentered and there were no bones of horses in early and mature phases of Harappan culture.
• Harappans knew Elephant and Rhinoceros.
• Similarity of Harappans with Sumerian cities of Mesopotamia – same food grains production and same animals’ domestication.
• Difference – Harappans in Gujarat produce rice and domesticated elephant which wasn’t in Mesopotamian cities.
TECHNOLOGY
• Harappan culture belongs to Bronze Age.
• They used the tools made of stone but they were also aware of manufacturing of Bronze and use of bronze.
• Bronze is made by mixing tin and copper. But both were not available locally and
so the numbers of bronze tools were less.
• Copper - was obtained from Khetri mines in Rajasthan’s Juhnjhunu district. It could have been brought from Balochistan as well.
• Tin – it was brought from Afghanistan or Hazaribagh and Bastar.
• The bronze tools discovered from Harappan sites were having less percentage of tin.
• Bronze smiths – they were an important artisan group in Harappan society. They produced images, utensils, axes, saws, knives and spears.
Textile
●We read above that Harappans were earliest to produce cotton.
●A piece of woven cotton has been found from Mohenjo-Daro.
●Spindle whorls - it was used for spinning.
●Weavers - they weave cloths from wool and cotton
◆TRADE
• Granaries at Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and Lothal, numerous seals, uniform scripts, regulated weights and measures suggest importance of trade in Harappan civilization.
• Inland trade - They traded in stone, metal, shell etc.
• They didn’t possess raw material for the production of commodities.
• Money system – Today we have notes and coins but Harappans were not having any metal money. Most probably they were having barter system, in which they procure metals in exchange of food grains.
• Navigation – They practice navigation on coast of Arabian Sea.
• Wheel – They knew about wheel and it was used in carts.
• They used kind of modern ekka but not spoked wheel.
• Commercial links with one area of
Rajasthan, and also with Afghanistan and Iran.
• Trading colony – Harappans had setup a trading colony in northern Afghanistan which facilitated trade with central Asia.
• Trade with Mesopotamia–because Harappan seals have been found in
Mesopotamia.
• The trade between two mostly in lapis lazuli in 2300 B.C. Mesopotamian texts speak of trading relations with Meluha which was ancient name of Indus region. They also told us about two intermediate stations – Dilmun and Makan – between the Meluha and Mesopotamia. Dilmun can probably be present Bahrain in Persian Gulf while Makan is present Makran coast of Iran and Pakistan.
POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
• There is no clear idea about the political organisation of the Indus Valley people.
Unlike the Mesopotamians and the Egyptians, they have not left behind any inscription describing their system of administration.
• Perhaps the Indus valley people were more concerned with commerce and they were ruled by a class of merchants. But it can be safely stated that there was an organisation like a municipal corporation to look after the civic amenities of the people.
TEMPLES
•While Egypt and Mesopotamia were having temples there is no evidence of temple like structure in Harappa's culture.
•In Lothal, there are evidences of practicing of fire cult but evidences of temples are missing.
• Probably Harappa was ruled by class of merchants, who were more concerned with commerce than conquests. It must be noted that the Harappans lack in weapons.
RELIGIOUS PRACTICES
• Numerous terracotta figurines of women have been found from Harappa.
• In one of the figurines, a plant is growing out of the embryo of women representing earth goddess. This goddess was connected with the origin and growth of plants.
• The Harappans worshipped earth goddess as fertility goddess and in similar manner as Egyptians worshipped the Nile goddess Isis.
• But we are not sure that Harappa's like Egyptians were matriarchal or not.
• In Egypt daughter inherits the throne or property, but in Harappa who inherits this, we have no knowledge about this.
• It is only in 6th century AD onwards that various mother goddesses such as Durga, Kali, Chandi, Amba etc. came to be regarded as goddess in Puranas and Tantric literatures.
The Male Deity (Proto Shiva) in the Indus Valley
• In Harappan civilization the male deity was represented on seal.
• The male deity was having three (3)horns head. He sits like a yogi on a stool in cross-legged position.
• Animals like Elephant, Tiger, Rhinoceros and Buffalo surrounded him while two Deer are under his stool.
Phallus worship
• Phallus worship existed in Harappan times which later connected with Shiva.
• Evidences of phallus worship -numerous symbols of the phallus and female sex organs made of stone.
• According to Rig-Veda Non-Aryan people were also worshippers of phallus.
• Phallus worship had been started by
Harappans which later become respectable form of worship in Hindu society.
Tree Worship
• Other than worshipping phallus, male deity and mother goddess, Harappans also worshipped trees and animals.
• Pipal - most important tree which was worshipped and even worshipped today.
• Evidences - Deity represented on a seal in the midst of the branches of Pipal.
◆Animal Worship
• Like other worship evidences, animal
worship can also be seen on seals.
• One horned unicorn - Most important animal to be worshipped. Identified with Rhinoceros
• Humped bull - Next important animal which was worshipped.
• Animals in Pashupati seal indicates that they were also worshipped.
• These Gods in form of trees, animals, were not placed in temples while in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia it was common.
• Scholars have not said anything about
religious beliefs of Harappan as their script is not deciphered.
• Amulets – these were found in large
numbers, probably because of belief in
ghosts and evil forces which could harm them and they used amulets which protected them from evil spirit.
• Atharvaveda composed in Vedic period consists of many charms and spells and recommends amulets for warning of diseases and evils forces.
•THE HARAPPAN SCRIPT
• Harappan like ancient Mesopotamians invented the art of writing.
• The Harappan script is a mystery because it has not been deciphered.
• Many have linked it with other languages like Dravidian or Proto Dravidian or Sanskrit or Sumerian but it’s an indigenous product and has nothing to do with other languages.
• Because of non-decipherment of script, we can’t conclude anything about its religion, ideas and beliefs.
• Most of the script is found on seals, using very few words. Seals were used for authentication purposes. (for example, if a packet is sealed, its contents are safe)
• Only one thing which we know about script is – it is pictographic and not alphabetic.
• There were 250 to 400 pictographs
• Each picture represents an idea or object.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
• We know that Harappans have some script and they also trade. The script must have helped them to record the transactions, day to day activities, property details etc.
• There are number of articles found which were used for weights and measures or its multiples – in weighing mostly 16 or its multiples were used.
Example – 16, 64, 460, 320 and 640
• This tradition of 16 continued till postindependence era and 46 annas
made one rupee.
• They also knew about measurement.
• Evidences – sticks inscribed with measuremarks. One of the sticks was made of bronze
.
• SEALS
• >2000 seals found
• Majority carried short inscription with
pictures of one horned bull, buffalo, tiger,rhinoceros, goat and elephant
• Square or quadrilateral.
• IMAGES
• Made beautiful metal images
• Dancing girl made of bronze is master
piece of Harappa.
●She is naked
● Right arm on hip
● Left arm hanging down
● Wearing number of bangles
● Hair is plaited
● Masterpiece of Harappan art
● Drooping eyes
Bearded priest
● Figure of the bearded man was interpretedas a
priest
● He is drapedinashawl which is coming under right arm and covers the left
shoulder.
● Shawl decorated with trefoil pattern
● Eyes – little elongated and half closed like in mediation
● Nose – well-formed and medium size
● Mouth – average size, close cut moustache, short beard and whiskers
● Hair – parted in
middle
▪ Plain woven fillet passed round head.
• Head
– armlet in right hand
Terracotta figurines
• Large numbers from Harappan settlements
• Terracotta figurines of animals – birds,
monkeys, sheep, dogs and cattles, humped and
• Humpless bulls
• Male and female figurines
• Terracotta bullock carts (today ‘s bullock cart’s ancestors)
• Quality- less than Mesopotamia
REASONS OF DECLINE
• Amount of rainfall
3000 BC amount of rainfall in Indus
region increased and then decreased
affecting the agriculture and
stockbreeding
• Decreasing fertility
Expansion of desert increased salinity
which further decreased the fertility
again affecting the agriculture.
• Sudden subsidence or uplift of the
land which caused floods
◆ Earthquake
●Earthquake caused changes in the
course of Indus causing inundation of
Mohenjo-Daro hinterland.
● Decline due to foreign Invasion.
• According to this view Vedic
Aryans who destroyed the Harappan
culture.
• But it is lacked in evidences.
• Reality of Decline of Harappan Civilization:
• There were lot of factors which
contributed in decline of Harappan
civilization
• One of the important factors is –
ecological imbalance
• Failure in the evolvement i.e.
Harappan were conservative. No new
technologies.
• POST URBAN PHASE OF HARAPPAN
CULTURE (1900-1200 BC)
• Time period- 1900-1200 BC
• Also known as – sub Indus culture
• Earlier considered post Harappan but
now more popularly called as late
Harappan culture.
• Traits of post urban Harappan culture
were found in Pakistan and central and
western India
● Manda, Jammu
● SangholinPunjab
● Daulatpur and mitthal, Haryana
● Almgirpur and Hulas in Saharanpur,
UP
• It was primarily chalcolithic in which
tools of stone and copper were used
• Tools – Axes, chisels, knives, bangles,
curved razors, fish-holks and spearheads
• Economic subsidence – agriculture,
stock raising, hunting and fishing
• Gradual disappearance of measuring objects, human figurines etc.
● Objects to measure length were not found.Fore.g.inlat
erperiod–cubical stone weights and terracotta cakes were absent in Gujarat.
● All Harappan sites lack human
figurines
● Faience – it went out of fashion
● End of Indus trade with West Asian centers
● Scarcity or absence of Lapis lazuli, chert,
carnelian beads and copper and bronze vessels
Pottery
● New kinds of pottery occurred in last levels of post urban phase
● In Haryana and Punjab – grey ware and painted
grey ware found- these were associated with Vedic people
• It is said that barbarian horse riding people came
from Iran and overran Harappan cities. But careful examination of evidences
revealed that this wasn’t true.
● Successive groups of people may have
encountered the people belonging
to the late Harappan phase between 1500 BC and
1200 BC.
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